In some of the world’s harshest desert landscapes, people learned to build entire cities using mud. Made by mixing earth, water, and straw, mudbricks were shaped by hand and dried under the sun, creating a building material that was inexpensive, accessible, and surprisingly effective in extreme climates.
For centuries, mudbrick became the foundation of architecture, especially in regions where stone and timber were scarce, but its popularity was not just about availability. Thick earthen walls naturally kept interiors cool during scorching days and warm during cold desert nights, making mudbrick ideal for survival in arid environments. The material also enabled communities to build compact settlements with shaded streets, inward-looking homes, and fortified walls that responded directly to the surrounding climate.
Over time, these practical building techniques evolved into remarkable forms of desert urbanism. Towering mudbrick houses, fortified oasis towns, caravan settlements, and dense historic cities emerged across the region, many of which continue to stand today.
1. Shibam, Yemen
Often called the “Manhattan of the Desert,” Shibam is considered one of the world’s earliest examples of vertical urbanism and the most iconic mudbrick city in the Middle East. Located in Yemen’s Wadi Hadhramaut, the fortified settlement dates back to the 16th century, when repeated floods forced local Hadhrami communities to rebuild the city on elevated ground.
What distinguishes Shibam is its dense cluster of multi-story mudbrick tower houses, some rising to 11 stories. Constructed using sun-dried adobe bricks reinforced with timber, the buildings were designed to maximize space within defensive walls while protecting residents from tribal conflicts and extreme desert conditions. The city’s compact layout and narrow shaded streets helped reduce heat gain and improve airflow, making it an early model of climate-responsive urban planning.
The tower houses typically followed a vertical domestic hierarchy: storage and livestock occupied the lower floors, family living spaces filled the middle levels, and upper floors were used for sleeping and ventilation during hotter months. Despite their monumental appearance, the structures require constant replastering and maintenance due to the fragility of earthen materials. Today, Shibam remains a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a landmark of vernacular desert architecture.
2. Sana’a, Yemen
One of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Sana’a is renowned for its distinctive mudbrick tower houses and a rich Islamic urban fabric. Situated in Yemen’s highlands, the historic city developed over centuries as a major political, cultural, and trade center along ancient caravan routes linking Arabia with the Mediterranean and East Africa.
The Old City of Sana’a is especially celebrated for its multi-story earthen houses built from mudbrick and rammed earth, often decorated with intricate white gypsum patterns and stained-glass windows known as qamariyah. Many structures rise between five and nine stories, reflecting a sophisticated approach to high-density urban living long before modern skyscrapers emerged. The buildings were traditionally organized vertically, with storage at the ground level, reception spaces above, and private family quarters on upper floors.
Unlike the austere appearance of Shibam, Sana’a’s architecture is highly ornamental: narrow alleyways, internal courtyards, mosques, hammams, and gardens created a compact environment that adapted to the region’s climate and topography. Much of the city’s present form dates from the Islamic period, particularly after the 7th century, though Sana’a’s origins are believed to predate Islam by many centuries.
3. Yazd, Iran
Located between two major deserts in central Iran, Yazd is one of the world’s oldest surviving earthen cities and a masterclass in climate-responsive urbanism. The city developed as an important stop along the Silk Route, where traders, travelers, and artisans contributed to its economic and cultural growth over centuries. Much of Yazd’s historic fabric was built using adobe, mud plaster, and rammed earth, materials ideally suited to the harsh desert environment.
Yazd is best known for its passive cooling systems, particularly its windcatchers, or badgirs, which captured and directed cool air into homes and public buildings. Combined with thick mudbrick walls, shaded alleys, courtyards, and underground qanat water systems, these strategies allowed the city to remain habitable.
Architecturally, the city is characterized by its earth-toned skyline, domed roofs, vaulted spaces, and tightly packed urban morphology designed to minimize heat exposure. Yazd also holds deep cultural significance as a historic center of Zoroastrianism, reflected in its fire temples and funerary towers.
4. Arg-e Bam, Iran
Arg-e Bam, located in southeastern Iran, was once the largest adobe citadel complex in the world and an important fortified settlement along the ancient Silk Route. Believed to have origins dating back to the Achaemenid period, the city flourished between the 7th and 11th centuries due to its strategic position on regional trade networks connecting Persia with Central Asia.
Built almost entirely from mudbrick, rammed earth, and palm-trunk reinforcements, the citadel was organized as a self-sustaining desert city enclosed within massive defensive walls. Its urban structure included residential quarters, bazaars, mosques, caravanserais, military barracks, and an elevated governor’s complex overlooking the settlement.
In 2003, a devastating earthquake destroyed much of the site, prompting one of the world’s largest heritage reconstruction projects through international collaboration. Today, the citadel has been largely restored to its former glory.
5. Diriyah, KSA
Diriyah is located on the outskirts of present-day Riyadh and is considered the birthplace of the first Saudi state and one of the most significant examples of Najdi mudbrick architecture in the Arabian Peninsula. Founded in the 15th century by Mani’ Al-Muraydi, the settlement grew along the banks of Wadi Hanifa and later emerged as a major political and religious center during the 18th century under the Al Saud dynasty.
The historic At-Turaif district, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was constructed primarily using mudbrick, adobe plaster, and palm wood sourced from the surrounding oasis environment. Its architecture is defined by thick earthen walls, inward-looking courtyard houses, narrow shaded streets, and triangular geometric openings characteristic of traditional Najdi design.
Diriyah’s urban planning reflected defensive and social priorities, with fortified walls, watchtowers, palaces, mosques, and densely arranged residential quarters integrated into the landscape. The Salwa Palace complex, once the political heart of the first Saudi state, remains one of the site’s most important architectural landmarks.
6. Ushaiger, KSA
Located northwest of Riyadh, Ushaiger was established more than 1,500 years ago. The oasis town served as an important stop for pilgrims and trade caravans crossing the Arabian Peninsula. Its name, derived from the Arabic word for “little blond,” is believed to reference the surrounding red mountains illuminated by the desert sun.
Built primarily from mudbrick, clay, and palm wood, Ushaiger reflects the traditional architectural language of the Najd region. The settlement is characterized by tightly packed courtyard houses, narrow shaded alleyways, defensive walls, and small windows designed to reduce heat gain and maintain privacy. The dense urban fabric helped create cooler microclimates while protecting residents from harsh desert conditions.
Homes were typically organized around internal courtyards, while upper levels provided ventilation and views over the oasis landscape. Mosques, watchtowers, and interconnected pathways reinforced the settlement’s communal and defensive character. Unlike many historic desert towns that underwent extensive modernization, large parts of Ushaiger have retained their original earthen character.
7. Aït Benhaddou, Morocco
Aït Benhaddou is situated along the former trans-Saharan caravan route between Marrakech and the Sahara Desert and is one of North Africa’s most iconic earthen settlements. The fortified ksar is believed to date back to the 11th century, when it developed as a strategic trading post for merchants transporting gold, salt, and spices across the desert.
Constructed using rammed earth, adobe bricks, clay plaster, and timber, the settlement is defined by its clustered mudbrick houses enclosed within defensive walls reinforced by corner towers. The architecture reflects traditional Berber building techniques adapted to the arid climate and rugged terrain of southern Morocco.
The settlement rises organically along a hillside overlooking the Ounila River, creating a dramatic stepped skyline of terraced dwellings, granaries, and communal spaces. At the highest point stands a fortified granary that once safeguarded food supplies and valuables for local communities. Over centuries, Aït Benhaddou became an important symbol of Saharan trade culture and earthen craftsmanship. Today, the UNESCO-listed ksar remains one of the finest surviving examples of pre-Saharan mudbrick urbanism in Morocco.
8. Zabid, Yemen
Founded in the 9th century by the Ziyadid dynasty, Zabid emerged as an influential center of Islamic learning in the Arab world. Located on Yemen’s western coastal plain near the Red Sea, the city prospered through trade, agriculture, and scholarship, eventually becoming home to hundreds of mosques, madrasas, and religious institutions.
Built primarily from mudbrick and adobe, Zabid’s architecture reflects the climatic and cultural conditions of Yemen’s coastal region. The city’s compact urban fabric, shaded streets, internal courtyards, and thick earthen walls helped reduce heat gain in the hot and humid environment. Unlike the vertical tower houses of Yemen’s highland cities, Zabid’s structures were generally lower in scale and organized around religious and civic spaces.
Architecturally, the city is distinguished by its mosque complexes, decorative brickwork, and traditional courtyard houses. The Great Mosque of Zabid, founded in the early Islamic period, became a major intellectual center where Islamic sciences, philosophy, and literature were taught for centuries. At its peak, Zabid attracted scholars from across the Islamic world and played a vital role in spreading knowledge throughout the region. Today, Zabid remains a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
9. Bahla, Oman
Located at the foothills of Oman’s Jebel Akhdar mountains, Bahla is one of the region’s oldest oasis settlements that flourished between the 12th and 15th centuries under the Banu Nebhan tribe, who transformed Bahla into a political and commercial hub connected to regional trade and agricultural networks.
Built using mudbrick, adobe plaster, stone, and palm-trunk construction, Bahla developed around an extensive oasis sustained by the traditional falaj irrigation system. Its compact urban fabric, narrow passageways, and thick earthen walls were designed to provide shade and thermal comfort in the harsh desert climate.
The city is best known for the Bahla Fort, a monumental mudbrick fortress enclosed by nearly 13 kilometers of defensive walls that once protected the oasis and surrounding settlements. Residential quarters, mosques, watchtowers, and marketplaces evolved organically around the fortified core, reflecting the relationship between water management, agriculture, and urban life in Oman’s desert environment.
10. Siwa Oasis, Egypt
Siwa Oasis, located deep within Egypt’s Western Desert near the Libyan border, is one of the most isolated and culturally distinct settlements. Historically positioned along trans-Saharan trade routes, the oasis became known for its Berber heritage, date cultivation, and the ancient Oracle Temple of Amun, once visited by Alexander the Great.
Unlike conventional adobe settlements, Siwa’s architecture was built using kershef, a local material made from salt, mud, clay, and sand sourced from the surrounding salt lakes. This unique earthen construction technique produced thick insulating walls that protected interiors from extreme temperatures.
The old fortified settlement of Shali, established in the 13th century, formed the heart of Siwan urban life. Its tightly clustered houses, narrow winding alleys, and elevated defensive layout were designed to protect residents from raids and harsh climatic conditions. Palm trunks and olive wood were commonly used to reinforce roofs and structural openings.
As conversations around sustainability and climate-responsive design become urgent, these mudbrick settlements offer valuable lessons in building with local materials and designing in harmony with the environment.
